4. PROPOSED METHODOLOGY AND CASE STUDY: THE INTERDEPARTMENTAL FOR AGRICULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH “E. AVANZI”
4.1 Introduction 
4.2 Study Model: C.I.R.A.A. “Enrico Avanzi” 
4.3 Risk analysis in cultivation systems 
4.4 Application to concrete examples
4.5 Health checks and environmental testing

4.1   Introduction 

There is a vast amount of technical and regulatory documentation relating to safety and chemical risks. At the same time, it is difficult to get hold of information which makes it possible to evaluate the effects of exposure to dangerous substances. Official sources, such as statistics on injuries and work-related illnesses do not provide precise information, in as much as, the effects sought are diluted or masked caused respectively by exposure to similar sources, but of different origins, and the non-relevance of data collected.

It would be more suitable if chemical risks were evaluated in a wider light. One should consider the environment and agricultural foodstuffs as well as farming,  bearing in mind both the release of toxic or harmful molecules into the earth, water and air and not only the residues of chemical agents in food. However, this research would be unable to deal with the enormous number of tests required, the multiplicity of official bodies involved in testing processes and the hurdle of identifying and quantifying the relationships of cause and effect in play.

For all the above reasons, an alternative approach for the gathering of data throughout the area is proposed. It involves the selection of a wide range of farming estates where techniques and related risks are investigated. It is believed that by carefully selecting the ‘sample farm’ and checking all its procedures, in depth, the results will be truly indicative of all farms of that type.

In the province of Livorno it is possible to define areas with certain types of cultivation, for example vineyards and olive groves. With the identification of the ‘sample farms’, and the typical management procedures  employed, it will be possible to assign each area with a risk index on the basis of these procedures. In this way, the effects of farming activity on the health of the workforce, the environmental and the source of possible chemical residues in the derived foodstuffs can be establish.

At the moment it is not possible to identify ‘sample farms’ in the province of Livorno so, to provide an example of the approach, the Interdepartmental Centre for Agricultural and Environmental Research  (C.I.R.A.A.) – ‘E. Avanzi’ of Pisa University has been chosen. 

4.2 Study Model: C.I.R.A.A. “Enrico Avanzi” 

The Interdepartmental Centre for Agricultural and Environmental Research  – ‘E. Avanzi’ of Pisa University is located in S. Piero a Grado (Pisa) – Lat. 43°; Long. 10°21’ at 3m above sea level.

It is situated in the Regional Park of Migliarino-San Rossore- Massaciuccoli on the Pisan plane south of the Arno river. The centre covers an area of about 1700 hectares of level ground, 700 hectares of which are woodland (pines and mixed woodland), whilst the remaining areas contain various types of farmland fit for seed and cereals crops, protein crops, forage  for milk cows, part of the land is used for sheep grazing.

The centre has 36 staff, 28 of whom are technical staff and 8 administrative. With seasonal workers staff numbers reach 50. 

The centre carries out production and experimental work (on crops over entire fields or plots and husbandry), teaching (practice and internship for university students and professionals) technical services (laboratory analyses, farm management, machinery and vehicle handling and repairs, building and road maintenance work etc.) and administrative services (accounting, contracts, information, documentation etc.)

Production processes are similar to those found in large multifaceted estates with the arable farming occurring alongside livestock husbandry (stables with Italian Friesian and Pisan cows) in addition to woodland activities.

Plant production includes various types of crops. These are summarized below with the average area dedicated to each type over a number of agricultural years.

 

Cereals	200 hectares
Oil plants	70 hectares
Forage	200 hectares
Industrial	50 hectares
Others	100 hectares

 

The production of the forestry department involves land management (ca. 500 hectares), woods of domestic pine for the production of pine nuts (ca. 180 hectares) and cultivation of  poplar (currently around 10 hectares).

Zootechnical work involves the management of a breeding program of Italian Friesian milk cows numbering 105 head, of which 40are milked for high quality milk and a core of Pisan cows are kept to maintain genetic stock.

Experimental work involves the interdisciplinary study of the relationship between farming activities and the environment. The main areas of study are techniques for sustainable farming and the defence of important crops and alternative cropping systems based on the reduction of input and preserving the soil’s fertility, studies of the impact of farming methods on the environment and research on breeding techniques most suited to zootecnical species. Our research also aims at improving the quality of products and maintaining an ecological balance, optimising organisational and management procedures, studies of the economic and environmental effects of technical developments in agriculture, the study of biological aspects of the flora and fauna of agricultural systems and agricultural and environmental testing on non-food crops.

The Centre’s structure means that research is carried out in the field and checked throughout the centre, work is financed by the European Union, various ministries and local bodies, regional development agencies and the private sector.

Internal departments (technical management, administration, workshops and labs) combine with external ones, suppliers that hire out farm equipment, working cooperatives etc. The centre has close links to the commercial and productive sectors and proposes systems which are fully transferable to the local farming businesses.

The work is planned on a  rational basis and adheres to all health and safety standards in force. All this makes the Centre a cutting-edge agricultural nucleus from both a technical and environmental point of view. 

4.3 Risk analysis in cultivation systems 

There are a number of  cropping systems at the ‘E. Avanzi’ Centre suitable for risk assessment.  In particular is cereal crop rotation typically found on an industrial scale, which sees the rotation of sugar beet, wheat, sunflowers and again wheat. In this study crops were tested in systems where various rotations were compared with increased levels of high-input farming. Energy input calculations were made on these over a number of years, on analysis of the ‘gross energy’, the total energy inputs were calculated for each cropping system.

According to the authors of the research this method enables one to obtain, amongst other things, an assessment of the possible relationship that exists between environmental deterioration and the amount of energy input into the system. This would provide us with a provisional evaluation of the impact of farming activities on the environment.

For the current study an investigation was based on medium-input farming, comparable to ‘input levels with reference to farming techniques usually employed in central Italy, aimed at obtaining satisfactory productivity borne by average running costs’.

Let us now try to analyse operations that constitute risks to workers’ health and safety within the farming cycles in our model.

In general farming operations on estates which produce cereal crops are performed with machines hitched to tractors of different power. For preparatory work and associated tasks, were a substantial quantity of power is required, tractors with four wheel drive and high horse power are used (over 100kW) whilst for sowing, fertilising and weed control operations less powerful tractors can be employed (75kW).

Considering that the machines and substances used are similar we can group some of these operations and so we can do the same with the work related hazards. For simplicity we shall call these operations ‘activities’.

To these can be added operations of storage and maintenance of machinery; thus we have three activities each of a different type but with similar risks.

Below is a detailed table of the main risks that exist in different farming operations.

Chart 1 Operational Risks Grouped by Activity

 

Activity	Operation	Risks
Tillage and cultivation practices	Ploughing Harrowing Rotary hoeing     Sowing and weed control       Fertilisation	Injuries due to use of high powered tractors Physical risks (noise, vibration) Chemical risks (dust) Transversal risks Injuries due to use of tractors Physical risks (noise, vibration) Chemical risks (dust, agro-chemical  residue) Injuries due to use of tractors Physical risks (noise, vibration) Chemical risks (dust, fertilisers)
Harvesting and transportation	Cutting Threshing Transportation	Injuries due to use of harvesting machinery Physical risks (noise, vibration) Chemical risks (dust)
Maintenance and storage	Normal and extraordinary maintenance Warehouse management	Risks due to structural insufficiency Safety risks Chemical risks (mineral oils, welding fumes, ) Physical risks (noise)

Chart 2 Ploughing - technical chart

Ploughing is the primary operation carried out on the land and occurs at different times of year. It prepares the soil for subsequent work by restoring the structural nature required with the possible incorporation of fertilisers previously spread over the surface, at the same time this process removes vegetable and crop residues by burying them. It is usually performed by towed ploughs hitched to a tractor by a three point coupler and manoeuvred by hydraulic jacks.

Period   Purpose   Description   Operation   Workers Work capacity

Unless otherwise required, ploughing typically occurs in autumn and spring Turning over the soil, ploughing-in plant residues, refluents etc. Causes the turning over of clumps of soil detached from the surrounding ground Attaching and disassembly of machinery, modifying the width of work Tractor drivers 1.7 – 1.5 hectares/hour

Chart 3 Harrowing and rotary hoeing  – technical chart

Harrowing and rotary hoeing  are operations carried out after ploughing to provide the best possible conditions for sowing and initial growth of the plants. Different machinery is used to break up the large clumps, fine down the soil and level the ploughed surface. Associated work serves an important purpose, for example the elimination of weeds which appear after ploughing and working into the soil of certain fertilisers and herbicides.

Period Purpose Description   Workers Work capacity

After ploughing and during autumn and spring . Breaking up clumps of soil and levelling and fining the ground Levelling of the ground is obtained by the use of machinery depending on the type of land. Tractor drivers 1.5 – 3.5 hectares/hour

Chart 4 Sowing – technical chart

Sowing is amongst the most delicate operations as the strength of the seedlings is dependent upon it. It is carried out with specially designed machines, seed drills, for spring crops, autumn and winter cereals and forage. Consequently, there exist many machines, from traditional models which can sow a wide range of seeds in a broadcast or linear pattern to high-precision models which lay seeds at set distances. The latter are widely used for sunflowers, sugar beet and corn and sometimes perform the localised distribution of insecticides and small quantities of fertiliser. It should be pointed out that for ease of farming there are more and more machines that combine the breaking up and fining of the soil with seeders.

Period Purpose Operation   Workers Work capacity

In spring for spring crops and autumn for fodder Sowing of seeds Attaching and disassembly of machinery, modifying the distribution mechanisms, loading the hopper Tractor drivers and labourers 0.8 – 2 hectares/hour

Chart 5 Fertilising – technical chart

The object of fertilising is to nourish the soil by adding substances which modify a soil’s characteristics. Synthetic fertilisers are mostly found in  granular form for technical, economic, transportation and storage reasons. To ensure an even distribution of this product spreaders are used. These come in two main types; centrifugal which can spread over a wide area at limited costs but are often uneven in distribution, or the more recent pneumatic spreaders that provide a more even distribution avoiding waste and helping maintain environmental stability.

Period     Purpose Operation Workers Work capacity

Usually during tillage operations for the introduction of phosphorous, potassium and a fraction of the nitrogen quota, the remaining quantities are introduced when the plants need nitrogen. Distribution of synthetic fertilisers to supplement the soil’s reserves Attaching and Disassembly of machinery, loading the hopper Tractor drivers and labourers 1.5 – 3 hectares/hour

Chart 6 Weed control– technical chart

Weed control is one of the most delicate and complicated techniques used in farming crops; the task of controlling plants that compete with crops for nutrients is assigned to herbicides. The existence of infesting flora which becomes ever more resistant and aggressive, and the introduction of herbicides with a wider range of action, has led to the introduction of post-emergence techniques and diminished the negative effects of spring rain. Post-emergence treatment has taken on a leading role and is not just a makeshift action. Alongside this is specific action for soil disinfection, using granular or liquid products, employing the same techniques used for weed control

Period   Purpose Description     Workers Work capacity

Herbicides are most commonly used in spring for spring crops and autumn and the end of winter for winter cereals. Eliminate/limit  unwanted plants by spraying herbicide on land or crops Preparation of the formula and adjusting the sprayer on the basis of the amount of liquid required for treatment, selecting type of nozzle, pressure and height of nozzle to the ground. Tractor drivers 10 – 20 hectares/hour

Chart 7 Risk Factor distribution in operations of working the land and other farming work

Type of Risk	Risk factor	Operation
Safety risks	Moving parts in machinery	Rotary hoeing, harrowing, sowing, fertiliser, weeding
	machinery	Ploughing, rotary hoeing, harrowing, levelling the ground
	*Emergency work on machinery	All operations
	*Getting in/out of tractor	All operations
Risks to health and environment	Dust inhalation	Rotary hoeing, harrowing, sowing, fertilising
	Contact of chemical substances on the skin (herbicides and pesticides)	Sowing, weed control, fertilising
	Noise	Rotary hoeing, harrowing, sowing, fertilising, weed control
	Vibration	Rotary hoeing, harrowing, sowing, fertiliser, weed control
	Biological agents	All operations of working the land
General or organisational risks	Continuous work, night work	Sometimes required in different operations
	Manual shifting of loads	Sowing, weed control, fertilising
	*Movement on the road	All operations
	Discomfort caused by IMP	Sowing, weed control
	Intensity, boredom, solitude	All operations
	experience and skills of staff	All operations

*These risks are not included in the ISPESL classification.

Chart 8 Harvesting – technical chart

Harvesting is the operation that provides the economic results of farming and so explains the use of sophisticated and expensive machinery. Combine harvesters are used not only for winter cereals but also for husked corn, and soya.
Period Purpose Description Operations   Workers Work capacity	Spring, summer and autumn Harvesting of crops Cutting and threshing Cutting, shelling, husking, cleaning of grain and corn, loading into tank and finally unloading. Tractor drivers Renewable crops 0.4/1 hectares/hour End-of-year cereals 0.6/1.3 hectares/hour

Chart 9 Risk Factor distribution in harvesting operations

Type of Risk	Risk factor	Operation
Safety risks	Cover of starter motors	Threshing and cutting
	Cover on transmission	Threshing and ploughing
	Cover on moving parts	Blades and rotors for threshing and cutting
	*Emergency work on machinery	Threshers and cutters
	*Getting in/out of tractor	Threshers and cutters
	Machinery with and without CE logo	Threshers, cutters, trailers and digging equipment
Risks to health and environment	Dust inhalation	Threshing, cutting, loading trailers, sorting out cutters
	Noise	Threshing, cutting and cutters
	Vibration	Threshing, cutting and cutters
	Biological agents	Threshing, cutting and cutters
General or organisational risks	Continuous work, night work	Threshing, cutting
	*movement on the road	Transferring machinery and trailers
	Ergonomics of IMP	Sorting out cutters
	Intensity, boredom, solitude	Threshing, cutting
	experience and skills of staff	Threshing, cutting

Chart 10 Maintenance – technical chart

Regular maintenance of farm machinery involves cleaning, checking fluid levels and greasing moving parts.

In the farms examined, the existence of multi-purpose equipment with high performance levels meant that maintenance was a high priority given the particular requirements of this type of machinery. In smaller farms maintenance was limited to breakdowns and the start and end of the machinery’s use.

Chart 9 Chart 7 Risk Factor distribution in workshops

Type of Risk	Risk factor	Operation
Safety risks	Floor surface	Storage
	Paving	Storage
	Lighting	Storage and maintenance
	*ventilation	Storage and maintenance
	*pathways	Storage
	Exits	Storage
	Insufficient electrical safety	Storage and maintenance
	Fire	Storage
Risks to health and environment	Fumes	Storage and maintenance
	Noise	Storage
	Vibration	Storage
General or organisational risks	Manual shifting of loads	Storage and maintenance

Having looked at cultivation and maintenance operations, and related risks, we can now look at their effect on the environment, defining the foreseeable production of waste and pollution threats to soil, water and atmosphere.

Chart 12 Possible environment effects based on activity.

Activity	Operation	Possible impact
Working of the land and cultivation techniques	Ploughing	None
	Harrowing
	Rotary hoeing
	Levelling of ground
	Ditch maintenance
	Sowing	production of waste
	Weed control	Pollution of surface water Spread of chemical substances
	Fertilisation	Production of waste Pollution of surface and underground water
Harvesting	Cutting	Atmospheric pollution due to dried cereals
	Threshing
	Transportation
Maintenance and storage	Regular and emergency maintenance of machinery	Production of waste Pollution of surface and underground water Atmospheric pollution due to maintenance operations
	Storehouse management

Chart 13 Estimate for the production of waste

The type of waste produced by each operative phase is identified below. They are classified by official definition and for some the average quantity produced is included (per hectare worked and per 100 hours of machinery use). These figures are based on specific research.

Activity	Waste	Classification	Estimated amounts
Working of the land and cultivation techniques	Seed packaging	Special waste Not hazardous	0.3kg/hectare
	Herbicide and pesticides and unused products (primary container)	Special waste Hazardous	0.3kg/hectare
	External containers for herbicides and pesticides	Special waste Not hazardous	0.2kg/hectare
	Sacks containing synthetic fertilisers	Special waste Not hazardous	1.5kg/hectare
	Pallets	Special waste Not hazardous	105kg/hectare
Maintenance and storage	Used mineral oils (from hydraulic circuits, brakes, engines, transmission and cogs)	Special waste Hazardous	6kg/100hours
	Oil and diesel filters	Special waste Hazardous	0.35kg/100hours
	Oil and lubricant containers	Special waste Hazardous	1.5/100hours
	Oil stained rags	Special waste  Not hazardous	unknown
	Spent batteries	Special waste Hazardous	unknown
	Machinery and vehicles to be scrapped	Special waste Not Hazardous	unknown
	Filters for dust and fume extraction systems	Special waste Not Hazardous	unknown

Pollution of the soil: This can be easily avoided by adopting operational and structural precautions as for example:

• Storage of waste according to type, on a paved surface indoors,
• Use of solid containers that will not leak, with labels clearly identifying contents and with handles which making for manageable and safe handling,
• Construction of suitably large areas for tanks above ground,
• Application of suitable safety procedures during filling and emptying operations.

Pollution of surface and underground water: the sources of risk for surface and underground water which can be avoided by operational and structural precautions are:

• The dispersal of hazardous substances, used as raw material or that are spilled due to incorrect handling and storage, or possible accidents
• Runoff and leaching from treated land and crops due to precipitation,
• Washing vehicles and machinery without a suitable water treatment system

Atmospheric pollution: is a negligible impact, and mainly due to fume and dust emissions which are released into the atmosphere in diffused patterns or focused in a certain area due to particular work, which is of a sporadic nature such as:

• Welding operations for the maintenance of machinery and systems
• Drying of cereal

The need to protect workers and avoid atmospheric pollution requires that the emissions be captured at source and filtered when they exceed acceptable limits.

There follows a summary of risks to exposure of chemical and physical threats to workers health.

Chemical risk factor: Dust

Hazardous events: dust inhalation. All mechanical work carried out on the land raises dust, this is exacerbated if there is stubble on the ground as happens during ploughing.

Prevention: the most effective prevention technique is the use of tractors with closed cabins and forced ventilation, better still with air conditioning, and a good filter system.

Where tractors do not have cabins with the above characteristics or if the work is of a brief nature it is best to use IMP (individual measures for protection).

Chemical risk factor: Synthetic fertilizers

Hazardous events: contact with the skin and/or inhalation of dust when the hoppers are loaded and during spreading operations.

Prevention: use of IMP , in particular gloves, and masks (as needed).

When spreading fertilisers in fields it is necessary to use a tractor with a closed cabin and dust filters.

Chemical risks: agro-chemical products (herbicides and pesticides)

Hazardous events: contact with the skin and to a lesser extent inhalation of active ingredients.

The research carried out in the area under examination, with continuous cultivation cycles and the use of herbicides designed for the cultivation of corn, has a relatively limited content of active ingredients.

The risk of exposure to agro-chemical products is mainly limited to weed control, an operation of some importance to the growing of cereals and corn. They are occasionally used in disinfection and geo-disinfection campaigns and when needed in a weaker form during the sowing and the handling of treated seeds.

The risk related to return to field operations after treatment is a sporadic factor and exposure is greatly reduced given the absence of spraying.

Physical risk factor: Noise

Hazardous events: exposure to noise. Mechanised farming work is generally of a noisy nature. In the case of tillage this is due to the friction between equipment (ploughs, blades, rotors) and land. Further factors are added to the noise of the tractor engine in many other operations.

It would be neither relevant nor worthwhile distinguishing between the noise of various machinery in different operations since the underlying element is tractor noise, even if the engine’s power is different.

Protection:

The most important feature is the existence of the driver’s cabin. In tractors with soundproofed and air-conditioned cabins sound levels are below 80dB(A), whatever the work in progress. Where tractors have only roll-bars or cabins without air-conditioning  (open cabins) very high levels of 90dB (A) can be reached during some operations.

Physical risk factor: Vibrations

Hazardous events: vibrations and shaking are typical in mechanical farm work. In this case it is essentially vibration transmitted to all the body by the machinery.

Protection: The latest machines are designed to deal with and lessen the problem of vibration as much as possible.

Tractors reduce exposure to vibration by focusing on the seat, as well as the tractor’s structure by means of pneumatic suspension, anti-vibration buffers and such devices as suspended cabins.

Physical Risk factor: Manual shifting of loads

Hazardous events: trauma and lesions to muscles and bones.

This is a risk typical to such operations as sowing, fertilising, weed control and others where machines and equipment must be loaded and intense efforts made.

Generally fertilisers, herbicides seeds etc. are loaded on pallets. The required amounts are taken and loaded onto the relevant equipment.

Prevention: the loading and filling of hoppers is carried out manually: now suppliers tend to limit packaging to a maximum of 30kg. Adhering to this limit is not always sufficient for the protection of all workers.

Workers must follow certain guidelines to reduce risks. This might involve getting assistance from someone when lifting heavy or awkward loads. Loads should be lifted by bending one’s knees, and using lifting equipment such as pallet transporters or lift trucks.

The doctor also has an important role to play, recently they have been introduced, however, their role needs to be increased.